Chlamydia in Birds

Campylobacter is one of the most common causes of bacterial gastroenteritis in people in the UK. Most people associate it with food poisoning, particularly undercooked poultry, but fewer realise that Campylobacter can also be carried by animals, including dogs, cats and reptiles. At ParasiteVet, our approach is grounded in evidence-based diagnostics and clear clinical interpretation. Understanding which Campylobacter species are involved, and how different pets carry different strains, allows owners to protect both animal and human health without unnecessary worry or treatment. What is Campylobacter? Campylobacter is a group of bacteria that live in the intestinal tract of many animals. Some species are capable of causing illness in people, while others may be carried without causing any obvious signs in the animal itself. In humans, infection most commonly leads to diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever and nausea. Most cases resolve without treatment, but illness can be more severe in young children, elderly adults, pregnant people and those with weakened immune systems. Campylobacter in Dogs and Cats Dogs and cats most commonly carry Campylobacter species such as Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. These are the same species most frequently associated with food-borne illness in people. Importantly, dogs and cats do not need to be visibly ill to carry Campylobacter. The bacteria can be detected in healthy animals, particularly puppies and kittens, or in pets that have recently experienced stress, dietary change, rehoming, or exposure to crowded environments such as kennels or rescue centres. In some cases, Campylobacter may be associated with diarrhoea, especially in young animals. However, detection alone does not prove that it is the cause of illness, and results must always be interpreted alongside clinical signs and overall health. Is Campylobacter from Pets a Risk to People? Yes, but the risk is highly dependent on circumstances. In the UK, most Campylobacter infections in people are linked to food rather than pets. That said, contact with animal faeces is a recognised route of exposure. Risk increases when a dog or cat has diarrhoea, when hand hygiene is poor after cleaning up stools or litter trays, or when vulnerable individuals live in the household. Dogs and cats can act as bridging hosts, moving between outdoor environments and close contact with people. This means bacteria picked up outside can be brought into the home, onto hands, floors or soft furnishings. In most cases, simple hygiene measures are far more effective than medication at reducing risk. Why Reptiles Are Different Reptiles are biologically very different from dogs and cats. Their body temperature, gut environment and immune systems support a different range of bacteria. This distinction is especially important when discussing Campylobacter. The Campylobacter species that genuinely colonises the reptile gut is not the same species commonly found in dogs, cats or poultry. Treating reptiles as if they carry the same Campylobacter as mammals risks misunderstanding both animal health and zoonotic risk. The Reptile-Associated Species Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum Scientific research has shown that reptiles are primarily associated with Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum. This bacterium is adapted to cold-blooded animals and can live in the reptile gastrointestinal tract without causing obvious illness. Older literature sometimes refers to “reptile-associated Campylobacter fetus”, which can be confusing. Today, C. fetus subsp. testudinum is recognised as the reptile-adapted lineage and is genetically distinct from the Campylobacter species most often linked to food poisoning. Why This Matters for Human Health While many Campylobacter infections in people are mild and self-limiting, Campylobacter fetus behaves differently from the more familiar food-borne species. In humans, it is more often associated with invasive or systemic disease, particularly in older adults or those with compromised immune systems. Serious illness remains uncommon, but this species is clinically important and deserves careful consideration in households that keep reptiles, especially where hygiene standards may be challenged or vulnerable individuals are present. Diagnostics and Testing A Species-Specific Approach Because not all Campylobacter species behave in the same way, how we test matters. Many routine tests simply report that “Campylobacter” has been detected, without identifying which species is present. While this can be useful in some situations, it does not always allow accurate assessment of zoonotic risk or guide appropriate next steps. At ParasiteVet, our diagnostic panels use species-specific real-time PCR , designed to reflect how Campylobacter behaves in different pets. Reptile Testing For reptiles, our PCR screening specifically targets Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum, the only Campylobacter species known to truly colonise the reptile gut. This avoids reporting non-specific results that may not be biologically relevant. This targeted screening is included in: Reptile Diamond Test (qPCR) Reptile Essential PCR Panel (qPCR) Results are interpreted alongside microscopy findings and husbandry information, recognising that detection does not automatically indicate disease or the need for treatment. Dog and Cat Testing In dogs and cats, the Campylobacter species of greatest relevance to both animal health and zoonotic risk are Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Our dog and cat PCR screening therefore focuses specifically on these organisms. This testing is included in: Dog and Cat Diamond Test (qPCR) Dog and Cat Essential PCR Panel (qPCR) This approach avoids vague “Campylobacter positive” results and provides information that is clinically meaningful for vets and owners. Does a Positive Campylobacter Result Mean My Pet Needs Treatment? Not necessarily. Campylobacter can be detected in healthy animals, particularly dogs and reptiles. A positive result does not automatically mean Campylobacter is the cause of illness, that antibiotics are required, or that there is immediate danger to the household. Treatment decisions should always be made by a veterinary surgeon, based on clinical signs, age, overall health and household risk factors. Unnecessary antibiotic use offers little benefit and contributes to antimicrobial resistance. Practical Advice for Pet Owners Simple hygiene measures are highly effective at reducing zoonotic risk. Washing hands thoroughly after handling pet faeces or cleaning enclosures, keeping reptiles and their equipment away from food preparation areas, and cleaning up faeces promptly all make a real difference. Extra care is advisable if there are young children, elderly adults, pregnant people or immunocompromised individuals in the home. If a dog or cat has diarrhoea, faeces should be treated as potentially zoonotic until the problem has resolved, and veterinary advice should be sought if signs are severe or persistent. The Take-Home Message Campylobacter is not just a food-borne issue. Dogs, cats and reptiles can all play a role in zoonotic exposure, but not all Campylobacter species are the same. Reptiles are uniquely associated with Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum, while dogs and cats most commonly carry Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Using diagnostic tests that reflect these differences allows for clearer interpretation, sensible hygiene advice and responsible, test-led decision making that protects both animal welfare and public health.  References Public Health England. Campylobacter guidance and surveillance data. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Campylobacteriosis annual reports. World Health Organization. Campylobacter fact sheet. Fitzgerald C. Campylobacter. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. Wagenaar JA et al. Campylobacter in animals and public health relevance. Gilbert MJ et al. Reptile-associated Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum. Patrick ME et al. Reptiles as a source of Campylobacter infections.

Supporting the Gut: Why Digestive Health Matters for Dogs & Cats  A healthy gut is the foundation of good health in dogs and cats. Beyond digesting food, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is an intricate organ system housing trillions of microorganisms — bacteria, yeasts, protozoa, and viruses — collectively known as the gut microbiota . These microbes interact closely with the intestinal lining and immune system, influencing not only digestion but also metabolism, inflammation, and even behaviour. In a healthy animal, beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Enterococcus species dominate the gut flora. They help maintain an acidic intestinal environment that suppresses pathogens, ferment undigested carbohydrates to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate (fuel for intestinal cells), and stimulate the production of mucus and secretory IgA — both essential for intestinal barrier protection. However, stress, antibiotics, dietary change, infections, or parasitism can disrupt this delicate ecosystem. The result — known as dysbiosis — can lead to diarrhoea, bloating, poor nutrient absorption, or chronic gastrointestinal inflammation. Scientific studies have demonstrated that re-establishing microbial balance with probiotics and prebiotics can reduce diarrhoea duration, modulate immune responses, and improve stool quality ( Schmitz & Suchodolski 2016, Vet Clin Small Anim 46:21–32 ). At ParasiteVet , our goal is to support that balance using evidence-based formulations. Our Veterinary Parasitology digestive range — Digestive Care Paste , GI Care Powder , Digestive Clay and Fibre Care — combines probiotics, prebiotics, natural clays, and dietary fibres to stabilise the gut environment, restore stool consistency, and enhance long-term intestinal resilience. Understanding Key Gut-Supportive Components Before diving into each product, let’s look at the functional ingredients used across the range — and why they matter. 1. Probiotics (Enterococcus faecium) Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host (FAO/WHO 2001). Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415 E1707 is a widely studied strain in small-animal nutrition. Competes with pathogens for nutrients and adhesion sites Produces lactic acid, lowering intestinal pH Supports recovery after antibiotic therapy Studies show that probiotic administration in dogs reduces acute diarrhoea duration and improves faecal scores ( Herstad et al. 2010, Vet Rec 167:75–79 ). 2. Prebiotics (FOS, MOS, Inulin) Prebiotics are non-digestible carbohydrates that feed beneficial bacteria. Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) selectively stimulate Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium growth. Mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS) bind to bacterial lectins, preventing attachment of harmful E. coli and Salmonella. Inulin , from chicory root, provides sustained fermentation, improving SCFA production. Together, they help re-establish balanced intestinal flora and enhance nutrient absorption. 3. Natural Binding Agents (Bentonite / Diosmectite / Zeolite) These mineral clays adsorb toxins, bacterial metabolites, and excess water, firming stools and protecting mucosa. Bentonite (smectite) has a high surface area that binds toxins and heavy metals. Diosmectite coats the intestinal lining, reducing irritation and fluid loss. Zeolite also acts as an odour-absorbing and ammonia-binding mineral. Such agents are valuable in acute diarrhoea or post-infection recovery. 4. Mucosal & Barrier Support (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine / Acacia gum) N-acetyl-D-glucosamine supports mucin synthesis, strengthening intestinal tight junctions. Acacia gum provides soluble fibre that soothes inflammation and encourages SCFA generation. 5. Fibre (Soluble & Insoluble) A balanced fibre mix maintains transit time and stool consistency. Soluble fibre (e.g. psyllium, inulin) promotes fermentation and gut motility, while insoluble fibre adds bulk — particularly useful in anal gland health and preventing constipation. 1. Rapid Support — Digestive Care Paste This veterinary-strength paste is ideal for acute digestive upset , combining probiotics, prebiotics, and bentonite clay for fast relief. Key benefits Recolonises the gut with beneficial E. faecium Binds harmful metabolites to firm loose stools Provides quick, palatable dosing during stress or diet change When to use Sudden diarrhoea After antibiotic treatment or deworming Following travel, stress, or diet transition Administer twice daily until stools firm, or as advised by your vet. 2. Daily Maintenance — GI Care Powder For ongoing or recurrent digestive issues, this powder offers comprehensive microbiome and mucosal support . Contains E. faecium + FOS/MOS – to restore healthy gut flora N-acetyl-D-glucosamine – for mucosal repair Diosmectite – to absorb toxins and protect lining Vitamin B12 – to support intestinal and immune health Use for Mild inflammatory bowel disease or chronic loose stools Recovery from parasitic or bacterial enteritis Long-term resilience in sensitive pets Mix daily with food according to body-weight. Consistent use helps maintain healthy digestion and prevents relapse. 3. Natural Binding & Firming — Digestive Clay A simple, natural formula of 100 % purified bentonite clay , sterilised for veterinary use. Benefits Rapidly firms stools by absorbing excess water Neutralises dietary toxins and bacterial by-products Gentle on sensitive stomachs; flavour-free for picky eaters Ideal for acute loose stools , mild dietary intolerance, or post-antibiotic recovery. Use short-term or as maintenance when required. 4. Fibre & Regularity — Fibre Care Good gut health depends on consistent transit. Fibre Care delivers a veterinary-strength blend of soluble and insoluble fibres, with probiotic and prebiotic support. Key functions Promotes stool bulk and regularity Supports natural anal-gland expression Reduces odour and toxin load via zeolite Enhances SCFA production for colon health Best suited for Dogs with soft or inconsistent stools Pets prone to anal-gland issues Long-term maintenance of stool quality Sprinkle on food once daily. Suitable for continuous use. Integrating the Range: A Stepwise Gut-Support Strategy SituationRecommended Product(s)Focus Acute diarrhoea / stress episode Digestive Care Paste ± Digestive Clay Rapid relief, stool firming Post-antibiotic or chronic imbalance GI Care Powder Restores flora & mucosal barrier Maintenance / anal gland health Fibre Care Fibre balance, odour & toxin control Used sequentially or together, these products offer layered protection and recovery from digestive disruption. Evidence-Based Veterinary Insight Probiotic efficacy: Multiple trials confirm reduced diarrhoea duration and improved faecal quality in dogs given E. faecium supplements ( Kelley et al. 2009, J Vet Intern Med 23:791–795 ). Prebiotic synergy: FOS and MOS increase beneficial bacteria and SCFA production ( Roberfroid 2007, J Nutr 137:830S–837S ). Clay minerals: Diosmectite reduces diarrhoea frequency and binds bacterial toxins in veterinary patients ( Dupont et al. 2014, Clin Microbiol Infect 20 Suppl 4:S57–63 ). Fibre supplementation: Improves stool consistency and reduces anal-gland disease recurrence in dogs ( Bellenger et al. 2018, Aust Vet Pract 48:35–39 ). These findings underpin the composition of our Veterinary Parasitology range. Why ParasiteVet? Veterinary formulated: Developed by qualified veterinary surgeons with expertise in internal medicine and zoological medicine. Science-driven: Formulated using peer-reviewed data on probiotics, fibres, and mineral clays. Safe & effective: Each product produced under GMP conditions for companion animals. Versatile: Suitable for both dogs and cats. By integrating targeted probiotics, prebiotics, binding minerals, and fibre, the ParasiteVet range provides complete digestive support, from rapid symptom control to long-term gut maintenance. Final Thoughts A balanced gut microbiota protects pets from infection, optimises nutrient uptake, and underpins immune health. When imbalance occurs, the right combination of probiotics, prebiotics, fibre, and clays can help restore stability and comfort. Whether addressing acute diarrhoea, post-treatment recovery, or ongoing sensitivity, ParasiteVet’s Veterinary Parasitology digestive range offers reliable, vet-approved solutions for every stage of gut care. For a healthier digestive system — and a happier pet — explore: Digestive Care Paste → GI Care Powder → Digestive Clay → Fibre Care →

Discover how Adenovirus affects bearded dragons, what symptoms to watch for, and how to protect your reptiles. Fast, affordable PCR testing available in the UK.

Amoebas in reptiles may be harmless or deadly. Only PCR confirms Entamoeba invadens. Reptile Diamond testing ensures accurate diagnosis and safety.

Why PCR Testing for Clostridium perfringens in Dogs is of Limited Diagnostic Value Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium frequently found in the environment and as part of the normal gastrointestinal microbiota of dogs. Although certain strains are capable of producing enterotoxins associated with gastrointestinal signs, PCR testing for C. perfringens toxin genes in fecal samples offers limited diagnostic utility, particularly when performed without full clinical context. A foundational study by Goldstein et al. (2012) evaluated fecal samples from both healthy and diarrheic dogs, using culture, PCR, and ELISA to assess the presence of C. perfringens and its enterotoxins. They found no statistically significant correlation between the presence of toxin genes and clinical disease, concluding that C. perfringens was a common finding in both healthy and ill dogs [PMID: 23277693]. Similarly, Marks et al. (2002) reported that C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) was detected in both healthy and diarrheic dogs, although more frequently in diarrheic dogs. Importantly, however, toxin gene presence alone was not a reliable predictor of disease severity or outcome [PMID: 11820110]. Chia et al. (2018) highlighted that netF-positive C. perfringens strains were also found in both diseased and healthy dogs, challenging earlier assumptions that this gene was specific to necrotizing enteritis [PMID: 29153812]. Other studies have similarly shown that the cpe gene can be present in dogs with no gastrointestinal signs, further weakening the case for using PCR as a diagnostic marker in isolation. Risks of Misinterpretation and Overuse of Antibiotics PCR is an extremely sensitive method capable of detecting low levels of bacterial DNA, even from dead organisms or non-pathogenic strains. In the case of C. perfringens, this sensitivity becomes a double-edged sword: detecting a gene does not indicate active toxin production, bacterial overgrowth, or disease causation. When PCR testing is done without proper clinical oversight, it can lead to misinterpretation of results, unnecessary anxiety for pet owners, and inappropriate antimicrobial use. The use of antibiotics in dogs with positive PCR results but no clinical evidence of C. perfringens-related disease risks harming the patient’s gut microbiota and contributes to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). As emphasized by Weese (2011) in a review on gastrointestinal infections, C. perfringens is an inconsistent and unreliable pathogen in dogs, with toxin detection being more informative than gene presence alone [PMID: 21461190]. Misuse of PCR results can delay proper diagnosis, compromise animal welfare, and contribute to public health risks through resistance gene propagation. Clinical Best Practices Accurate diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease in dogs must be based on thorough clinical examination, patient history, and when appropriate, supportive diagnostics such as fecal cytology, toxin ELISA, or histopathology. The detection of C. perfringens toxin genes by PCR may be a piece of the puzzle, but it should never be used in isolation to guide treatment. References Goldstein MR, Kruth SA, Bersenas AM, Holowaychuk MK, Weese JS. Detection and characterization of Clostridium perfringens in the feces of healthy and diarrheic dogs. Can J Vet Res. 2012 Jul;76(3):161–165. [PMID: 23277693] Marks SL, Kather EJ, Kass PH, Melli AC. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile in diarrheic and healthy dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2002 Jan-Feb;16(1):533–540. [PMID: 11820110] Chia MY, Hsu YM, Pang VF, Chang CC, Chang CH, Chen CM. Isolation and characterization of netF-positive Clostridium perfringens from dogs and cats in Taiwan. Vet Microbiol. 2018 Jan;214:77–82. [PMID: 29153812] Weese JS. Bacterial enteritis in dogs and cats: diagnosis, therapy, and zoonotic potential. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2011 May;41(3):287–309. [PMID: 21461190]

The Need for Regulation and Accountability in Pet Sample Testing Laboratories in the UK In recent years, there has been a growing concern among veterinary professionals regarding the increasing number of pet owners who bring parasite reports from unregulated and non-registered laboratories. This issue is particularly alarming in the field of exotic pet medicine, where accurate diagnosis and treatment are critical for both animal welfare and public health. These laboratories, often run by unqualified individuals with no clinical experience in the veterinary field, are providing results that frequently make no sense, sometimes listing parasites that do not even exist in the species being tested. As a result, general practitioners are unknowingly basing treatment decisions on faulty data, leading to unnecessary or incorrect treatments that can cause significant harm to the animals involved. The veterinary profession operates within a framework designed to ensure the highest standards of animal care, guided by institutions such as the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS), the British Veterinary Association (BVA), the Veterinary Defence Society (VDS), and Trading Standards. Registered laboratorties that test pet samples in the UK are registered with the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS) or ISO regulated. This makes them accountable. However, the rise of these unregulated laboratories poses a serious challenge to maintaining these standards. A formal complaint is now being submitted to these bodies, along with a request for legislative changes, to bring accountability and oversight to the testing of pet samples. This change is not only necessary to protect animal welfare but also to safeguard public health from zoonotic diseases that could be misidentified or overlooked due to poor-quality testing. The Impact of Unregulated Laboratories on Veterinary Practice The issue of unregulated parasite testing is particularly prevalent in exotic pet medicine. Unlike common domestic pets such as cats and dogs, exotic species have unique parasitological profiles, requiring specialist knowledge to correctly identify and interpret test results. In daily veterinary practice, we are seeing an increasing number of owners presenting laboratory reports from non-registered testing facilities, often obtained at a lower cost than tests conducted by veterinary-approved laboratories. These reports frequently list parasites that are not found in the species being tested or misidentify normal commensal organisms as dangerous parasites, leading to unnecessary alarm and inappropriate treatment. The consequences of relying on these inaccurate reports are severe. In our own practice, we have followed and retested a dozen cases where non-registered laboratories had reported the presence of parasites that, upon further investigation, were proven to be false positives or misidentifications. In some cases, veterinarians, trusting the initial reports, administered unnecessary deworming treatments, antibiotics, or even more aggressive interventions, causing stress and harm to the animals. Beyond the direct impact on animal health, there is also a wider issue of trust in the veterinary profession. When pet owners believe they have received accurate diagnostic information from these non-registered labs, they may question their veterinarian's recommendations when discrepancies arise. This erodes the veterinarian-client relationship and can lead to owners making misinformed decisions about their pets' healthcare. The Public Health Risk Misdiagnosing parasites does not just affect the animals involved; it also has serious implications for public health. Some parasites are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans. If an unregulated laboratory incorrectly categorizes a parasite, the risks to human health can be severe. For instance, an exotic pet owner might be falsely reassured that their animal is free from zoonotic parasites when, in reality, the pet is carrying an undiagnosed risk to its owners. Conversely, false positives may lead to unnecessary fear and the inappropriate use of medications, potentially contributing to antimicrobial resistance. Regulated veterinary laboratories adhere to strict quality control measures, ensuring that their diagnostic methods are accurate and validated. This is not the case for unregistered labs, which may lack standardized procedures, fail to follow proper sample handling protocols, and use unreliable identification techniques. The margin for error in parasite identification is small, and without ay form of accountability or level of expertise, these unregulated reports become more of a hazard than a help. The Role of Social Media and Charities in Spreading Misinformation A major driver of the problem is the role of social media groups, online forums, and even some pet charities and associations in promoting these unregistered laboratories. Many pet owners turn to these platforms for advice, unaware that the recommendations they receive may not be based on sound scientific principles. In an effort to save money, owners opt for cheaper tests from these dubious sources, not realizing that they may end up paying more in the long run due to incorrect diagnoses and inappropriate treatments. Charities and associations that recommend these unregulated testing services may be doing so with good intentions, believing they are helping pet owners find affordable testing options. However, without proper scrutiny of the laboratories they endorse, they are inadvertently contributing to the spread of misinformation and the harm it causes to both animals and their owners. The Need for Regulatory Change To address this growing issue, we are submitting a formal complaint and request for regulatory change to the RCVS, BVA, VDS, and Trading Standards. Our primary objectives are: Mandatory Registration of Laboratories: Any laboratory offering diagnostic services for pets in the UK should be required to register with an official regulatory body and adhere to strict quality control standards. Certification of Personnel: Individuals conducting testing and reporting should be required to have verifiable qualifications in the veterinary field and laboratory diagnostics. Clear Legal Consequences for Misdiagnosis: Laboratories that provide incorrect or misleading results should be held accountable, with clear legal consequences to prevent further harm to animals and the public. Public Awareness Campaign: Veterinary associations and professional bodies should launch educational campaigns to inform pet owners about the risks of using non-registered laboratories and the importance of obtaining diagnostic tests from reputable sources. Stricter Oversight of Online Advertising: Non-registered laboratories should not be permitted to advertise their services on social media platforms or be endorsed by charities and associations without proper vetting. Conclusion The rise of unregulated pet testing laboratories is a significant and growing problem in the UK. By prioritizing affordability over accuracy, pet owners are unknowingly placing their animals at risk and contributing to a larger public health issue. The veterinary profession, supported by regulatory bodies, must take a stand against these practices to ensure that all diagnostic testing meets the necessary standards of accuracy and reliability. Without swift and decisive action, the continued proliferation of these non-registered laboratories will lead to further animal suffering, increased public health risks, and a deterioration of trust between veterinarians and pet owners. We urge the RCVS, BVA, VDS, and Trading Standards to take immediate steps to implement stricter regulations, ensuring that all pet diagnostic laboratories operate with the expertise, accountability, and oversight necessary to protect both animal and human health.

Coccidia in Bearded Dragons in the United Kingdom

Campylobacter is a bacteria that can cause gastrointestinal symptoms commonly in dogs. Campylobacter in reptiles is thought to be more common than we actually think, acting as reservoirs that can then infect people or dogs.

Salmonella testing in reptiles