Parasites of Pets

Chlamydia in Birds

Mon, 06 Apr 2026 10:48:05 GMT

Chlamydia psittaci: what is it, how does it spread, clinical signs

Early diagnosis of any disease is important so that specific treatment can be started as soon as possible, recovery is as smooth and quick as possible, and the chance of the disease spreading, either to in contact animals or people, is kept to a minimum. Most birds are well known to hide the signs of disease they may be suffering from. This is because, as prey species, in the wild they would be predated on as soon as they appeared to be weaker than the rest of their flock. The need for a quick diagnosis at the time a bird is presented in a veterinary clinic is of the utmost importance, as they have often been subclinically ill for a longer time than has been obvious to their owner.

Chlamydia psittaci is a bacterial infection that causes disease in many species of parrot. The disease may be referred to as psittacosis, chlamydiosis, chlamydophilosis, or ornithosis in other species of bird. It is especially common in budgies, cockatiels, macaws and lorikeets, although it can affect any parrot. Infection can be asymptomatic or symptomatic, with sudden death sometimes occurring. This disease is of zoonotic concern, especially in the elderly, very young or immunocompromised.

What is Chlamydia psittaci?

Chlamydia, or Chlamydophila psittaci, is an obligate intracellular bacteria, meaning that, similar to viruses and parasites, it has to live inside the hosts cells to survive, reproduce and cause disease. This makes eradicating the disease with treatment challenging. Latent infection is common, with infected birds not always exhibiting clinical signs of disease, and shedding of the bacteria seen intermittently. Transmission to humans can lead to a disease called psittacosis or ornithosis, which typically causes flu-like symptoms, but can lead to pneumonia or non-respiratory disease.

How is this disease spread?

Chlamydia is spread from bird to bird, or bird to human, by inhalation or ingestion of dust particles that contain the bacteria. These particles become airborne from dried faeces or respiratory secretions. Less commonly, beak to mouth contact and bite wounds can lead to bird to human transmission, and direct spread to offspring can be seen as a result of food regurgitation.

Common clinical signs associated with Chlamydia infection in birds.

Chlamydia can lead to a range of clinical signs in birds. Some animals will be asymptomatic, with others showing mild non-specific illness, for example lethargy, weight loss, a fluffed up appearance and anorexia, while others can be clinically normal before collapse and death. Respiratory tract signs are commonly seen, including nasal and ocular discharge, sneezing and respiratory distress. Chlamydia will also commonly lead to gastrointestinal signs, such as diarrhoea, vomiting and bright green urates and faeces, most often as a result of hepatic involvement.

Common clinical signs associated with Chlamydia infection in humans

Mild infection in humans will cause flu-like symptoms such as a fever, headache, myalgia, a dry cough and/or dyspnoea which may progress to pneumonia. In more severe cases other organs can be affected which can lead to encephalitis, conjunctivitis, hepatitis, arthritis and cardiac problems such as endocarditis and myocarditis. If any of these clinical signs occur after contact with a bird, whether they are showing symptoms or not, you should visit your doctor as soon as possible. Human to human transmission is not known to occur.

Do we have to report positive cases in the UK?

In the UK, Chlamydia psittaci is not classified as a traditional notifiable disease in the same category as high-consequence infections such as avian influenza. However, under the Psittacosis (Ornithosis) Order , detection of C. psittaci in psittacine birds is statutorily reportable to the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) . This reflects its importance as a zoonotic infection with public health implications , rather than a disease primarily managed through livestock control frameworks. UKHSA guidance also highlights the human health risks associated with psittacosis and the need for appropriate precautions when handling birds or contaminated materials.

This requirement is specific to psittacines and differs from poultry and other avian species, where C. psittaci does not fall under the same statutory reporting framework as major notifiable poultry diseases. Despite this distinction, the infection remains clinically relevant across all bird groups, and appropriate veterinary management, hygiene, and biosecurity measures are essential whenever infection is suspected or confirmed.

At ParasiteVet, we offer reliable laboratory screening for Chlamydia psittaci as part of our avian diagnostic services.

Currently, testing is performed using a validated faecal antigen assay, allowing detection of active infection in both symptomatic and clinically normal birds. This provides a practical, accessible screening tool for routine health checks, new bird introductions, and investigation of clinical disease.

We are also expanding our diagnostic capability, with real-time PCR testing being introduced in the near future. PCR will provide increased analytical sensitivity and specificity, enabling detection of low-level infections and supporting more detailed clinical and epidemiological assessment.

Our approach focuses on:

Early detection, even in clinically normal birds

Supporting veterinary decision-making

Reducing zoonotic risk

Providing clear, professional laboratory reports

Testing is particularly recommended for:

New bird introductions

Multi-bird households

Breeding collections

Birds with vague or chronic illness

References

https://www.gov.uk/guidance/psittacosis

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/zoonoses-and-veterinary-public-health-disease-surveillance-reports

Campylobacter in Dogs and Cats Understanding Zoonotic Risk and the Reptile Connection

Thu, 08 Jan 2026 19:34:16 GMT

A practical guide for pet owners on risk, hygiene and testing

Campylobacter is one of the most common causes of bacterial gastroenteritis in people in the UK. Most people associate it with food poisoning, particularly undercooked poultry, but fewer realise that Campylobacter can also be carried by animals, including dogs, cats and reptiles.

At ParasiteVet, our approach is grounded in evidence-based diagnostics and clear clinical interpretation. Understanding which Campylobacter species are involved, and how different pets carry different strains, allows owners to protect both animal and human health without unnecessary worry or treatment.

What is Campylobacter?

Campylobacter is a group of bacteria that live in the intestinal tract of many animals. Some species are capable of causing illness in people, while others may be carried without causing any obvious signs in the animal itself.

In humans, infection most commonly leads to diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever and nausea. Most cases resolve without treatment, but illness can be more severe in young children, elderly adults, pregnant people and those with weakened immune systems.

Campylobacter in Dogs and Cats

Dogs and cats most commonly carry Campylobacter species such as Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. These are the same species most frequently associated with food-borne illness in people.

Importantly, dogs and cats do not need to be visibly ill to carry Campylobacter. The bacteria can be detected in healthy animals, particularly puppies and kittens, or in pets that have recently experienced stress, dietary change, rehoming, or exposure to crowded environments such as kennels or rescue centres.

In some cases, Campylobacter may be associated with diarrhoea, especially in young animals. However, detection alone does not prove that it is the cause of illness, and results must always be interpreted alongside clinical signs and overall health.

Is Campylobacter from Pets a Risk to People?

Yes, but the risk is highly dependent on circumstances.

In the UK, most Campylobacter infections in people are linked to food rather than pets. That said, contact with animal faeces is a recognised route of exposure. Risk increases when a dog or cat has diarrhoea, when hand hygiene is poor after cleaning up stools or litter trays, or when vulnerable individuals live in the household.

Dogs and cats can act as bridging hosts, moving between outdoor environments and close contact with people. This means bacteria picked up outside can be brought into the home, onto hands, floors or soft furnishings. In most cases, simple hygiene measures are far more effective than medication at reducing risk.

Why Reptiles Are Different

Reptiles are biologically very different from dogs and cats. Their body temperature, gut environment and immune systems support a different range of bacteria.

This distinction is especially important when discussing Campylobacter. The Campylobacter species that genuinely colonises the reptile gut is not the same species commonly found in dogs, cats or poultry. Treating reptiles as if they carry the same Campylobacter as mammals risks misunderstanding both animal health and zoonotic risk.

The Reptile-Associated Species Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum

Scientific research has shown that reptiles are primarily associated with Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum. This bacterium is adapted to cold-blooded animals and can live in the reptile gastrointestinal tract without causing obvious illness.

Older literature sometimes refers to “reptile-associated Campylobacter fetus”, which can be confusing. Today, C. fetus subsp. testudinum is recognised as the reptile-adapted lineage and is genetically distinct from the Campylobacter species most often linked to food poisoning.

Why This Matters for Human Health

While many Campylobacter infections in people are mild and self-limiting, Campylobacter fetus behaves differently from the more familiar food-borne species. In humans, it is more often associated with invasive or systemic disease, particularly in older adults or those with compromised immune systems.

Serious illness remains uncommon, but this species is clinically important and deserves careful consideration in households that keep reptiles, especially where hygiene standards may be challenged or vulnerable individuals are present.

Diagnostics and Testing A Species-Specific Approach

Because not all Campylobacter species behave in the same way, how we test matters.

Many routine tests simply report that “Campylobacter” has been detected, without identifying which species is present. While this can be useful in some situations, it does not always allow accurate assessment of zoonotic risk or guide appropriate next steps.

At ParasiteVet, our diagnostic panels use species-specific real-time PCR , designed to reflect how Campylobacter behaves in different pets.

Reptile Testing

For reptiles, our PCR screening specifically targets Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum, the only Campylobacter species known to truly colonise the reptile gut. This avoids reporting non-specific results that may not be biologically relevant.

This targeted screening is included in:

Results are interpreted alongside microscopy findings and husbandry information, recognising that detection does not automatically indicate disease or the need for treatment.

Dog and Cat Testing

In dogs and cats, the Campylobacter species of greatest relevance to both animal health and zoonotic risk are Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Our dog and cat PCR screening therefore focuses specifically on these organisms.

This testing is included in:

This approach avoids vague “Campylobacter positive” results and provides information that is clinically meaningful for vets and owners.

Does a Positive Campylobacter Result Mean My Pet Needs Treatment?

Not necessarily.

Campylobacter can be detected in healthy animals, particularly dogs and reptiles. A positive result does not automatically mean Campylobacter is the cause of illness, that antibiotics are required, or that there is immediate danger to the household.

Treatment decisions should always be made by a veterinary surgeon, based on clinical signs, age, overall health and household risk factors. Unnecessary antibiotic use offers little benefit and contributes to antimicrobial resistance.

Practical Advice for Pet Owners

Simple hygiene measures are highly effective at reducing zoonotic risk. Washing hands thoroughly after handling pet faeces or cleaning enclosures, keeping reptiles and their equipment away from food preparation areas, and cleaning up faeces promptly all make a real difference.

Extra care is advisable if there are young children, elderly adults, pregnant people or immunocompromised individuals in the home. If a dog or cat has diarrhoea, faeces should be treated as potentially zoonotic until the problem has resolved, and veterinary advice should be sought if signs are severe or persistent.

The Take-Home Message

Campylobacter is not just a food-borne issue. Dogs, cats and reptiles can all play a role in zoonotic exposure, but not all Campylobacter species are the same.

Reptiles are uniquely associated with Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum, while dogs and cats most commonly carry Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Using diagnostic tests that reflect these differences allows for clearer interpretation, sensible hygiene advice and responsible, test-led decision making that protects both animal welfare and public health.

References

Public Health England. Campylobacter guidance and surveillance data.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Campylobacteriosis annual reports.
World Health Organization. Campylobacter fact sheet.
Fitzgerald C. Campylobacter. Clinical Microbiology Reviews.
Wagenaar JA et al. Campylobacter in animals and public health relevance.
Gilbert MJ et al. Reptile-associated Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum.
Patrick ME et al. Reptiles as a source of Campylobacter infections.

Digestive Supplements for Dogs and Cats

Wed, 12 Nov 2025 11:33:47 GMT

Digestive Health Matters

Supporting the Gut: Why Digestive Health Matters for Dogs & Cats

A healthy gut is the foundation of good health in dogs and cats. Beyond digesting food, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is an intricate organ system housing trillions of microorganisms — bacteria, yeasts, protozoa, and viruses — collectively known as the gut microbiota . These microbes interact closely with the intestinal lining and immune system, influencing not only digestion but also metabolism, inflammation, and even behaviour.

In a healthy animal, beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Enterococcus species dominate the gut flora. They help maintain an acidic intestinal environment that suppresses pathogens, ferment undigested carbohydrates to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate (fuel for intestinal cells), and stimulate the production of mucus and secretory IgA — both essential for intestinal barrier protection.

However, stress, antibiotics, dietary change, infections, or parasitism can disrupt this delicate ecosystem. The result — known as dysbiosis — can lead to diarrhoea, bloating, poor nutrient absorption, or chronic gastrointestinal inflammation.

Scientific studies have demonstrated that re-establishing microbial balance with probiotics and prebiotics can reduce diarrhoea duration, modulate immune responses, and improve stool quality ( Schmitz & Suchodolski 2016, Vet Clin Small Anim 46:21–32 ).

At ParasiteVet , our goal is to support that balance using evidence-based formulations. Our Veterinary Parasitology digestive range — Digestive Care Paste , GI Care Powder , Digestive Clay and Fibre Care — combines probiotics, prebiotics, natural clays, and dietary fibres to stabilise the gut environment, restore stool consistency, and enhance long-term intestinal resilience.

Understanding Key Gut-Supportive Components

Before diving into each product, let’s look at the functional ingredients used across the range — and why they matter.

1. Probiotics (Enterococcus faecium)

Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host (FAO/WHO 2001). Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415 E1707 is a widely studied strain in small-animal nutrition.

Competes with pathogens for nutrients and adhesion sites
Produces lactic acid, lowering intestinal pH
Supports recovery after antibiotic therapy

Studies show that probiotic administration in dogs reduces acute diarrhoea duration and improves faecal scores ( Herstad et al. 2010, Vet Rec 167:75–79 ).

2. Prebiotics (FOS, MOS, Inulin)

Prebiotics are non-digestible carbohydrates that feed beneficial bacteria.

Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) selectively stimulate Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium growth.
Mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS) bind to bacterial lectins, preventing attachment of harmful E. coli and Salmonella.
Inulin , from chicory root, provides sustained fermentation, improving SCFA production.

Together, they help re-establish balanced intestinal flora and enhance nutrient absorption.

3. Natural Binding Agents (Bentonite / Diosmectite / Zeolite)

These mineral clays adsorb toxins, bacterial metabolites, and excess water, firming stools and protecting mucosa.

Bentonite (smectite) has a high surface area that binds toxins and heavy metals.
Diosmectite coats the intestinal lining, reducing irritation and fluid loss.
Zeolite also acts as an odour-absorbing and ammonia-binding mineral.

Such agents are valuable in acute diarrhoea or post-infection recovery.

4. Mucosal & Barrier Support (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine / Acacia gum)

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine supports mucin synthesis, strengthening intestinal tight junctions. Acacia gum provides soluble fibre that soothes inflammation and encourages SCFA generation.

5. Fibre (Soluble & Insoluble)

A balanced fibre mix maintains transit time and stool consistency. Soluble fibre (e.g. psyllium, inulin) promotes fermentation and gut motility, while insoluble fibre adds bulk — particularly useful in anal gland health and preventing constipation.

1. Rapid Support — Digestive Care Paste

This veterinary-strength paste is ideal for acute digestive upset , combining probiotics, prebiotics, and bentonite clay for fast relief.

Key benefits

Recolonises the gut with beneficial E. faecium
Binds harmful metabolites to firm loose stools
Provides quick, palatable dosing during stress or diet change

When to use

Sudden diarrhoea
After antibiotic treatment or deworming
Following travel, stress, or diet transition

Administer twice daily until stools firm, or as advised by your vet.

2. Daily Maintenance — GI Care Powder

For ongoing or recurrent digestive issues, this powder offers comprehensive microbiome and mucosal support .

Contains

E. faecium + FOS/MOS – to restore healthy gut flora
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine – for mucosal repair
Diosmectite – to absorb toxins and protect lining
Vitamin B12 – to support intestinal and immune health

Use for

Mild inflammatory bowel disease or chronic loose stools
Recovery from parasitic or bacterial enteritis
Long-term resilience in sensitive pets

Mix daily with food according to body-weight. Consistent use helps maintain healthy digestion and prevents relapse.

3. Natural Binding & Firming — Digestive Clay

A simple, natural formula of 100 % purified bentonite clay , sterilised for veterinary use.

Benefits

Rapidly firms stools by absorbing excess water
Neutralises dietary toxins and bacterial by-products
Gentle on sensitive stomachs; flavour-free for picky eaters

Ideal for acute loose stools , mild dietary intolerance, or post-antibiotic recovery. Use short-term or as maintenance when required.

4. Fibre & Regularity — Fibre Care

Good gut health depends on consistent transit. Fibre Care delivers a veterinary-strength blend of soluble and insoluble fibres, with probiotic and prebiotic support.

Key functions

Promotes stool bulk and regularity
Supports natural anal-gland expression
Reduces odour and toxin load via zeolite
Enhances SCFA production for colon health

Best suited for

Dogs with soft or inconsistent stools
Pets prone to anal-gland issues
Long-term maintenance of stool quality

Sprinkle on food once daily. Suitable for continuous use.

Integrating the Range: A Stepwise Gut-Support Strategy

SituationRecommended Product(s)Focus Acute diarrhoea / stress episode Digestive Care Paste ± Digestive Clay Rapid relief, stool firming Post-antibiotic or chronic imbalance GI Care Powder Restores flora & mucosal barrier Maintenance / anal gland health Fibre Care Fibre balance, odour & toxin control

Used sequentially or together, these products offer layered protection and recovery from digestive disruption.

Evidence-Based Veterinary Insight

Probiotic efficacy: Multiple trials confirm reduced diarrhoea duration and improved faecal quality in dogs given E. faecium supplements ( Kelley et al. 2009, J Vet Intern Med 23:791–795 ).
Prebiotic synergy: FOS and MOS increase beneficial bacteria and SCFA production ( Roberfroid 2007, J Nutr 137:830S–837S ).
Clay minerals: Diosmectite reduces diarrhoea frequency and binds bacterial toxins in veterinary patients ( Dupont et al. 2014, Clin Microbiol Infect 20 Suppl 4:S57–63 ).
Fibre supplementation: Improves stool consistency and reduces anal-gland disease recurrence in dogs ( Bellenger et al. 2018, Aust Vet Pract 48:35–39 ).

These findings underpin the composition of our Veterinary Parasitology range.

Why ParasiteVet?

Veterinary formulated: Developed by qualified veterinary surgeons with expertise in internal medicine and zoological medicine.
Science-driven: Formulated using peer-reviewed data on probiotics, fibres, and mineral clays.
Safe & effective: Each product produced under GMP conditions for companion animals.
Versatile: Suitable for both dogs and cats.

By integrating targeted probiotics, prebiotics, binding minerals, and fibre, the ParasiteVet range provides complete digestive support, from rapid symptom control to long-term gut maintenance.

Final Thoughts

A balanced gut microbiota protects pets from infection, optimises nutrient uptake, and underpins immune health. When imbalance occurs, the right combination of probiotics, prebiotics, fibre, and clays can help restore stability and comfort.

Whether addressing acute diarrhoea, post-treatment recovery, or ongoing sensitivity, ParasiteVet’s Veterinary Parasitology digestive range offers reliable, vet-approved solutions for every stage of gut care.

For a healthier digestive system — and a happier pet — explore:

Digestive Care Paste →
GI Care Powder →
Digestive Clay →
Fibre Care →

Adenovirus in Bearded Dragons

Fri, 29 Aug 2025 11:16:04 GMT

Testing in the UK

Adenovirus in Bearded Dragons: What Every UK Keeper Needs to Know

Bearded dragons are one of the most popular pet reptiles in the UK. They’re friendly, full of personality, and relatively easy to care for. But like all animals, they can carry hidden health risks. One of the most important and often overlooked threats in bearded dragons is a virus called Adenovirus, also known as Agamid Adenovirus 1 or AgAdV 1.

Even healthy looking dragons can carry this virus and pass it on to others. That’s why understanding what it is, how it spreads, and what you can do about it is so important, especially here in the UK where reptile keeping is more popular than ever.

So, What is Adenovirus?

Adenovirus in reptiles is a contagious virus that primarily affects agamid lizards, including bearded dragons. The specific strain seen in dragons is called Agamid Adenovirus 1. It belongs to a group of viruses known as Atadenoviruses, and it can have serious consequences, particularly for young or stressed reptiles.

While many infected dragons don’t show obvious symptoms, the virus can still be present and shed through their faeces. That means your dragon might look completely fine but still be a carrier. In groups or breeding collections, this can lead to the silent spread of infection.

How Common is it in the UK?

In the UK, awareness of Adenovirus in pet reptiles is growing. Studies have found that around 40 percent of bearded dragons under 18 months of age can test positive, even if they appear totally healthy. That number drops to around 8 percent in adult dragons, but the risk is still there.

At ParasiteVet, we’ve confirmed Adenovirus in dragons from all over the UK. Whether it’s a single pet or a larger collection, the virus doesn’t discriminate. Because so many infected dragons look healthy, many owners have no idea there’s a problem until other dragons start to get sick.

How Does it Spread?

Adenovirus is mainly spread through the faecal oral route. This means anything contaminated with infected faeces, such as enclosure surfaces, food or water bowls, or even your hands, can carry the virus. Dragons can easily become infected just by being in the same environment as a carrier.

The problem is made worse because adult dragons often show no symptoms but still shed the virus. Introducing a new dragon into your home or breeding group without testing it first can quietly introduce the infection, which is especially dangerous for young dragons who may become seriously ill.

What Signs Should You Look Out For?

Clinical signs of Adenovirus infection can vary a lot. Some dragons may show no signs at all. Others may develop symptoms such as weight loss, reduced appetite, lethargy, diarrhoea, or neurological signs like head tilting or stargazing. Sadly, some young dragons may pass away without warning if infected.

Because the signs are so general, it’s often misdiagnosed or completely missed without testing. In some cases, owners only discover the infection after losing a baby dragon or noticing symptoms in multiple animals.

Is There a Cure?

Unfortunately, there’s no known cure for Adenovirus. Treatment is supportive only. That means helping the dragon’s body cope with the virus by keeping it well hydrated, supporting its nutrition, and treating any secondary infections if needed. Your exotic vet may prescribe antibiotics to manage these complications or recommend probiotics and dietary support.

In breeding colonies or rescue situations, it may be necessary to separate or even euthanise severely affected animals to protect the health of others. It’s a difficult decision, but one that some large facilities face when trying to contain an outbreak.

What Can You Do to Prevent It?

The best way to protect your dragons is through testing and good biosecurity. Always quarantine new dragons for several weeks before introducing them to others. During that time, have them tested for Adenovirus using a PCR test. This is especially important for young dragons or if you plan to breed.

Keep their environment clean and disinfect surfaces regularly. Use separate equipment for each enclosure where possible and wash your hands after handling. If you have dragons of different ages, try not to house them together, since young dragons are more at risk.

At ParasiteVet, we often advise testing as part of a general health check, especially for breeders or those who have had unexplained illness in their collection. We understand the costs involved, which is why we’ve made our Adenovirus PCR testing more accessible than ever.

Affordable PCR Testing in the UK

ParasiteVet now offers the Agamid Adenovirus qPCR test at a discounted price to make it more afffordable to owners that would like to know their dragon ststus. This test detects Agamid Adenovirus 1 from a cloacal swab or fresh faecal sample and gives you clear results interpreted by our veterinary team, who work in first opinion and referral clinical practice with reptiles.

We offer free tracked postage both ways and fast turnaround times. Results are typically available in one to two working days, but please allow up to seven days in rare cases. Every test includes a formal report prepared by our experienced team, including a vet with advanced qualifications in exotic animal medicine.

You can order your Adenovirus test easily through our website here:

�� Order the Agamid Adenovirus qPCR Test

This test is especially useful for peace of mind in healthy dragons, screening new arrivals, or when unexplained symptoms are present.

Final Thoughts

Adenovirus can be a silent problem in UK bearded dragons, especially in younger animals and collections. Because it can spread without symptoms, routine testing is one of the most important things you can do to keep your reptiles safe and healthy.

We’ve seen firsthand how many cases go undetected until it’s too late. That’s why we’re committed to offering affordable, high quality testing and expert support to reptile keepers across the UK.

If you have any concerns or questions, our veterinary team is here to help. Whether you’re a new owner or a seasoned breeder, we’re always happy to offer guidance.

Take control of your dragon’s health and stay ahead of hidden infections like Adenovirus. Testing is simple, affordable, and could make all the difference.

Amoebas in Reptiles

Fri, 22 Aug 2025 18:15:55 GMT

What Their Presence Really Means

When examining reptile faecal samples under the microscope, it is not unusual to come across amoeboid organisms. These single-celled protozoa, recognised by their constantly changing shape and flowing movements, often appear as trophozoites on fresh smears. Their discovery can cause concern, but not every amoeba is harmful. Some are little more than incidental findings, while others, such as Entamoeba invadens, can cause devastating illness in snakes and certain lizards. Understanding the difference between these scenarios is essential for both reptile owners and veterinary professionals.

The most important amoeba in reptile medicine is Entamoeba invadens. Unlike the harmless amoebas that may pass through the digestive tract without consequence, E. invadens is capable of invading the intestinal lining. In doing so, it creates severe necrotising enteritis, often accompanied by bloody diarrhoea, lethargy, weight loss and in many cases death. The infection is particularly dangerous in snakes and in lizards such as monitors and agamids. Tortoises and turtles, on the other hand, may carry the parasite without showing outward signs of disease. Unfortunately, this silent carriage means they can shed infective cysts into the environment and pass infection to more vulnerable species, especially if they are housed together.

Transmission of E. invadens occurs through ingestion of cysts shed in faeces. These cysts are hardy and able to survive in the environment, contaminating food, water or enclosure surfaces. Once ingested, they release trophozoites that colonise and damage the gut. Because of its life cycle, strict hygiene, species separation and careful quarantine procedures are vital in preventing outbreaks.

Diagnosis of amoebiasis presents its own set of challenges. Under the microscope, it is possible to see trophozoites, and sometimes cysts, in faecal samples. However, relying on morphology alone is difficult, as pathogenic and non-pathogenic species often look very similar. A laboratory may report “amoeboid organisms observed” without being able to confirm which species is present. This is where molecular tools such as real-time PCR play an important role, as they allow us to distinguish E. invadens with accuracy.

The difficulty for reptile keepers is that amoebas other than E. invadens are also commonly detected. These include other species of Entamoeba that live in the intestines of tortoises without causing disease, as well as free-living amoebas such as Acanthamoeba or Naegleria that may be ingested with water and pass through the gut harmlessly. Their appearance in faecal samples can be misleading, especially if the reptile in question has no symptoms. For this reason, not all amoebas found in the stool should be assumed to be dangerous.

The real difficulty comes when a reptile is sick and amoebas are seen in the faeces. In that situation, the possibility of E. invadens must always be taken seriously. Because of the limits of microscopy, confirmation requires molecular testing. In our laboratory, if amoebas are mentioned on the report at any level of testing other than the Reptile Diamond profile, we recommend upgrading to this Diamond panel. The Diamond level includes real-time PCR, which is the gold standard method to confirm or exclude the presence of Entamoeba invadens. This is the only reliable way to differentiate a potentially fatal infection from a harmless commensal.

Treatment of confirmed amoebiasis can be attempted with anti-protozoal medications such as metronidazole, but success rates are variable, particularly in advanced cases. Supportive care, fluid therapy and nutritional support may help in less severe infections, but prevention remains the best approach. Preventative measures include quarantining new arrivals, avoiding the co-housing of tortoises with snakes or lizards, and maintaining strict cleanliness of enclosures and water sources.

From an epidemiological perspective, amoebas are common wherever reptiles are kept in groups, especially in collections with shared water systems or mixed species. Stress, inadequate husbandry or poor nutrition can tip the balance, making reptiles more susceptible to disease. In such environments, carriers like tortoises may pose a hidden risk to snakes and lizards that are far more likely to develop severe illness.

For reptile owners, the discovery of amoebas in faecal samples can understandably be worrying. It is important to remember that the majority of these organisms are not harmful. However, because E. invadens does exist and carries such a serious prognosis, the only safe way forward when amoebas are observed is to confirm their identity. This is why we strongly advise that any mention of amoebas in a profile test should prompt consideration of the Reptile Diamond level, which uses real-time PCR to provide definitive answers.

In summary, amoebas are a frequent finding in reptile faecal samples. Many are incidental passengers, but one, Entamoeba invadens, remains a lethal threat to certain reptile species. Distinguishing between these scenarios requires more than just a microscope—it requires molecular confirmation. The Reptile Diamond Test is designed to meet this need, offering owners and vets the peace of mind that comes with knowing whether the most dangerous amoeba is present. By combining careful diagnostics with good husbandry and biosecurity, it is possible to protect reptile collections from this ancient yet persistent parasite.

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Clostridium perfringens: Think twice before PCR testing

183:768813668 (Ross Machin) — Sun, 23 Mar 2025 13:48:56 GMT

Veterinary science can save you money and test accurately

Why PCR Testing for Clostridium perfringens in Dogs is of Limited Diagnostic Value

Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium frequently found in the environment and as part of the normal gastrointestinal microbiota of dogs. Although certain strains are capable of producing enterotoxins associated with gastrointestinal signs, PCR testing for C. perfringens toxin genes in fecal samples offers limited diagnostic utility, particularly when performed without full clinical context.

A foundational study by Goldstein et al. (2012) evaluated fecal samples from both healthy and diarrheic dogs, using culture, PCR, and ELISA to assess the presence of C. perfringens and its enterotoxins. They found no statistically significant correlation between the presence of toxin genes and clinical disease, concluding that C. perfringens was a common finding in both healthy and ill dogs [PMID: 23277693].

Similarly, Marks et al. (2002) reported that C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) was detected in both healthy and diarrheic dogs, although more frequently in diarrheic dogs. Importantly, however, toxin gene presence alone was not a reliable predictor of disease severity or outcome [PMID: 11820110].

Chia et al. (2018) highlighted that netF-positive C. perfringens strains were also found in both diseased and healthy dogs, challenging earlier assumptions that this gene was specific to necrotizing enteritis [PMID: 29153812]. Other studies have similarly shown that the cpe gene can be present in dogs with no gastrointestinal signs, further weakening the case for using PCR as a diagnostic marker in isolation.

Risks of Misinterpretation and Overuse of Antibiotics

PCR is an extremely sensitive method capable of detecting low levels of bacterial DNA, even from dead organisms or non-pathogenic strains. In the case of C. perfringens, this sensitivity becomes a double-edged sword: detecting a gene does not indicate active toxin production, bacterial overgrowth, or disease causation.

When PCR testing is done without proper clinical oversight, it can lead to misinterpretation of results, unnecessary anxiety for pet owners, and inappropriate antimicrobial use. The use of antibiotics in dogs with positive PCR results but no clinical evidence of C. perfringens-related disease risks harming the patient’s gut microbiota and contributes to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

As emphasized by Weese (2011) in a review on gastrointestinal infections, C. perfringens is an inconsistent and unreliable pathogen in dogs, with toxin detection being more informative than gene presence alone [PMID: 21461190]. Misuse of PCR results can delay proper diagnosis, compromise animal welfare, and contribute to public health risks through resistance gene propagation.

Clinical Best Practices

Accurate diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease in dogs must be based on thorough clinical examination, patient history, and when appropriate, supportive diagnostics such as fecal cytology, toxin ELISA, or histopathology. The detection of C. perfringens toxin genes by PCR may be a piece of the puzzle, but it should never be used in isolation to guide treatment.

References

Goldstein MR, Kruth SA, Bersenas AM, Holowaychuk MK, Weese JS. Detection and characterization of Clostridium perfringens in the feces of healthy and diarrheic dogs. Can J Vet Res. 2012 Jul;76(3):161–165. [PMID: 23277693]
Marks SL, Kather EJ, Kass PH, Melli AC. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile in diarrheic and healthy dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2002 Jan-Feb;16(1):533–540. [PMID: 11820110]
Chia MY, Hsu YM, Pang VF, Chang CC, Chang CH, Chen CM. Isolation and characterization of netF-positive Clostridium perfringens from dogs and cats in Taiwan. Vet Microbiol. 2018 Jan;214:77–82. [PMID: 29153812]
Weese JS. Bacterial enteritis in dogs and cats: diagnosis, therapy, and zoonotic potential. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2011 May;41(3):287–309. [PMID: 21461190]

Beware of bogus labs

Wed, 26 Feb 2025 14:07:16 GMT

Check that your testing lab is ISO or RCVS registered!

The Need for Regulation and Accountability in Pet Sample Testing Laboratories in the UK

In recent years, there has been a growing concern among veterinary professionals regarding the increasing number of pet owners who bring parasite reports from unregulated and non-registered laboratories. This issue is particularly alarming in the field of exotic pet medicine, where accurate diagnosis and treatment are critical for both animal welfare and public health. These laboratories, often run by unqualified individuals with no clinical experience in the veterinary field, are providing results that frequently make no sense, sometimes listing parasites that do not even exist in the species being tested. As a result, general practitioners are unknowingly basing treatment decisions on faulty data, leading to unnecessary or incorrect treatments that can cause significant harm to the animals involved.

The veterinary profession operates within a framework designed to ensure the highest standards of animal care, guided by institutions such as the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS), the British Veterinary Association (BVA), the Veterinary Defence Society (VDS), and Trading Standards. Registered laboratorties that test pet samples in the UK are registered with the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS) or ISO regulated. This makes them accountable. However, the rise of these unregulated laboratories poses a serious challenge to maintaining these standards. A formal complaint is now being submitted to these bodies, along with a request for legislative changes, to bring accountability and oversight to the testing of pet samples. This change is not only necessary to protect animal welfare but also to safeguard public health from zoonotic diseases that could be misidentified or overlooked due to poor-quality testing.

The Impact of Unregulated Laboratories on Veterinary Practice

The issue of unregulated parasite testing is particularly prevalent in exotic pet medicine. Unlike common domestic pets such as cats and dogs, exotic species have unique parasitological profiles, requiring specialist knowledge to correctly identify and interpret test results. In daily veterinary practice, we are seeing an increasing number of owners presenting laboratory reports from non-registered testing facilities, often obtained at a lower cost than tests conducted by veterinary-approved laboratories. These reports frequently list parasites that are not found in the species being tested or misidentify normal commensal organisms as dangerous parasites, leading to unnecessary alarm and inappropriate treatment.

The consequences of relying on these inaccurate reports are severe. In our own practice, we have followed and retested a dozen cases where non-registered laboratories had reported the presence of parasites that, upon further investigation, were proven to be false positives or misidentifications. In some cases, veterinarians, trusting the initial reports, administered unnecessary deworming treatments, antibiotics, or even more aggressive interventions, causing stress and harm to the animals.

Beyond the direct impact on animal health, there is also a wider issue of trust in the veterinary profession. When pet owners believe they have received accurate diagnostic information from these non-registered labs, they may question their veterinarian's recommendations when discrepancies arise. This erodes the veterinarian-client relationship and can lead to owners making misinformed decisions about their pets' healthcare.

The Public Health Risk

Misdiagnosing parasites does not just affect the animals involved; it also has serious implications for public health. Some parasites are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans. If an unregulated laboratory incorrectly categorizes a parasite, the risks to human health can be severe. For instance, an exotic pet owner might be falsely reassured that their animal is free from zoonotic parasites when, in reality, the pet is carrying an undiagnosed risk to its owners. Conversely, false positives may lead to unnecessary fear and the inappropriate use of medications, potentially contributing to antimicrobial resistance.

Regulated veterinary laboratories adhere to strict quality control measures, ensuring that their diagnostic methods are accurate and validated. This is not the case for unregistered labs, which may lack standardized procedures, fail to follow proper sample handling protocols, and use unreliable identification techniques. The margin for error in parasite identification is small, and without ay form of accountability or level of expertise, these unregulated reports become more of a hazard than a help.

The Role of Social Media and Charities in Spreading Misinformation

A major driver of the problem is the role of social media groups, online forums, and even some pet charities and associations in promoting these unregistered laboratories. Many pet owners turn to these platforms for advice, unaware that the recommendations they receive may not be based on sound scientific principles. In an effort to save money, owners opt for cheaper tests from these dubious sources, not realizing that they may end up paying more in the long run due to incorrect diagnoses and inappropriate treatments.

Charities and associations that recommend these unregulated testing services may be doing so with good intentions, believing they are helping pet owners find affordable testing options. However, without proper scrutiny of the laboratories they endorse, they are inadvertently contributing to the spread of misinformation and the harm it causes to both animals and their owners.

The Need for Regulatory Change

To address this growing issue, we are submitting a formal complaint and request for regulatory change to the RCVS, BVA, VDS, and Trading Standards. Our primary objectives are:

Mandatory Registration of Laboratories: Any laboratory offering diagnostic services for pets in the UK should be required to register with an official regulatory body and adhere to strict quality control standards.

Certification of Personnel: Individuals conducting testing and reporting should be required to have verifiable qualifications in the veterinary field and laboratory diagnostics.

Clear Legal Consequences for Misdiagnosis: Laboratories that provide incorrect or misleading results should be held accountable, with clear legal consequences to prevent further harm to animals and the public.

Public Awareness Campaign: Veterinary associations and professional bodies should launch educational campaigns to inform pet owners about the risks of using non-registered laboratories and the importance of obtaining diagnostic tests from reputable sources.

Stricter Oversight of Online Advertising: Non-registered laboratories should not be permitted to advertise their services on social media platforms or be endorsed by charities and associations without proper vetting.

Conclusion

The rise of unregulated pet testing laboratories is a significant and growing problem in the UK. By prioritizing affordability over accuracy, pet owners are unknowingly placing their animals at risk and contributing to a larger public health issue. The veterinary profession, supported by regulatory bodies, must take a stand against these practices to ensure that all diagnostic testing meets the necessary standards of accuracy and reliability. Without swift and decisive action, the continued proliferation of these non-registered laboratories will lead to further animal suffering, increased public health risks, and a deterioration of trust between veterinarians and pet owners. We urge the RCVS, BVA, VDS, and Trading Standards to take immediate steps to implement stricter regulations, ensuring that all pet diagnostic laboratories operate with the expertise, accountability, and oversight necessary to protect both animal and human health.

Coccidia in Bearded Dragons

Tue, 23 Aug 2022 12:11:36 GMT

More than one species

The Inland Bearded Dragon ( Pogona vitticeps ) is one of the two species of the Pogona genre that we see frequently kept as pets in the United Kingdom.

One of the most common parasites that we come across would be Isospora amphiboluri, a coccidian parasite that colonises the intestinal tract following faecal-oral transmission.

Isospora amphiboluri is the most common species of coccidia that infects Bearded Dragons in the United Kingdom. Symptoms may include anorexia, lethargy, diarrhoea, weight loss and failure to thrive. They may also be asymptomatic, showing no clinical signs at all. Some individuals, especially the very young or those with underlying disease, may become very ill and require urgent treatment. Prognosis is generally considered good in most cases, although more than one treatment course may be required.

Over the last few years we have seen an increase of another coccidian parasite: Choleoeimeria sp. . These are different morphologically to Isospora and may cause more serious disease in reptiles, possibly ascending in to the bile ducts (liver). Treatment is usually indicated and can be ineffective in many cases.

In recent years we have seen a decrease in Bearded Dragons becoming seriously ill due to coccidia overall. We believe this is mainly due to reptile keepers testing their dragons more frequently and especially during the quarantine period following the new pet arrival.

Parasite Testing is an essential tool for any reptile keeper who is concerned about animal welfare. All of our levels of reptile testing will check for these parasites.

Campylobacter in Reptiles

Mon, 11 Apr 2022 18:10:51 GMT

Not just in dogs!

In veterinary practice we see Campylobacter infections in dogs every week. It is a bacteria of importance when testing faecal samples for diarrhoea symptoms.

But what about reptiles?

A study a few years back in the United Kingdom suggested that reptiles may be reservoirs of this infection. We do not know exactly percentages of reptiles that carry the parasite because we simply don't routinely look for it. What we do know is that the more we look for this bacteria in reptile samples, the more we find.

This could mean that there may well be a risk to dogs and cats, but also public health, because there is zoonotic potential.

Our Reptile Platinum Test looks for all parasitic forms detectable thorugh wet mounts, flotations, sedimentations and staining, but also antigen-antibody tests for Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Salmonella and Campylobacter.

Prevalence of Campylobacter in captive reptiles in the United Kingdom will be another line of research we will be carrying out for the forseeable future. This is how we learn more about pathogens and progress the amazing fields of microbiology and parasitology of reptiles as we venture in to the unknown.

Salmonella in Reptiles

Tue, 25 Aug 2020 22:36:19 GMT

To test or not to test

Reptiles are fascinating, unique companions. From colourful sliders to gentle bearded dragons and powerful boas, their popularity as pets has grown significantly over the past few decades. Along with that rise in interest has come an increased awareness of potential health risks, particularly the bacteria Salmonella.

For many years, Salmonella has been a concern in reptiles, not because it always makes the animal sick, but because of its potential to spread to people. Understanding this issue requires a look at history, science, and modern veterinary guidance.

A Historical Perspective: Sliders and the Turtle Ban

In the 1960s and 70s, small turtles, particularly red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans), were imported in huge numbers from the United States. Their small size, appealing appearance, and ease of transport made them extremely popular as children’s pets. Hatchlings often sold for just a few dollars at fairs, markets, and pet shops.

But this boom quickly led to a problem. Young children were frequently handling the turtles and sometimes even putting them in their mouths. Combined with poor hygiene awareness, this resulted in outbreaks of Salmonella infections in children. The link between turtles and Salmonella became clear, and by 1975 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) introduced a ban on the sale of turtles with a shell length under four inches.

The four-inch rule was chosen because larger turtles were thought to be less likely to be handled by very young children in a way that would pose the same risk. The law significantly reduced turtle-associated Salmonella cases in children, though small turtle sales did not disappear entirely, as illegal trade and unregulated imports continued.

Today, Trachemys species, including red-eared sliders, yellow-bellied sliders, and Cumberland sliders, remain some of the most common pet turtles worldwide. They continue to highlight the balance between keeping reptiles as beloved pets and managing potential zoonotic (animal-to-human) risks.

Salmonella in Reptiles: Carrier Status

One of the most important things for owners to understand is that reptiles often carry Salmonella bacteria in their intestines without showing any signs of illness. In fact, for many reptiles, Salmonella is considered part of the “normal” gut flora.

This means a perfectly healthy-looking reptile can still shed bacteria in its faeces. Shedding may be constant or intermittent, and stressors such as transport, new environments, or illness can increase the likelihood of Salmonella being present.

For people, however, exposure can lead to salmonellosis , which causes diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, and in some cases more severe complications, especially in young children, the elderly, or anyone with a weakened immune system.

Importantly, although reptiles are usually symptom-free, there have been documented cases where reptiles themselves developed clinical illness from Salmonella infection. These are less common, but they do occur, especially if the reptile is stressed, immunocompromised, or kept in suboptimal conditions.

Should Owners Test Their Reptiles?

At ParasiteVet, we are often approached by reptile owners asking about testing their pets for Salmonella. Sometimes this is out of concern for children in the household, sometimes because a family member has been unwell, and other times simply for peace of mind.

The Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians (ARAV) advises that routine bacterial culture of reptile faeces is discouraged, mainly because Salmonella shedding is intermittent. A single negative result does not guarantee the reptile is “clear,” while a positive simply confirms what we already know — that reptiles commonly harbour Salmonella.

That being said, there are situations where testing may still be useful. In households with very young children, elderly relatives, or immunocompromised individuals, knowing if a reptile is actively shedding Salmonella can help families make more informed decisions about hygiene, risk, and management. Similarly, if a reptile shows clinical signs that could be linked to bacterial infection, targeted testing and culture may play a role in diagnosis and treatment.

So while routine screening of every reptile may not be recommended, selective testing in specific contexts can provide valuable information . The key is to discuss this with your vet and consider the individual circumstances of your household and your pet.

Responsible Ownership and Risk Management

Reptiles can absolutely be kept safely as pets, even in homes with children, provided good hygiene practices are in place. The goal is not to eliminate Salmonella, but to manage the risk of transmission.

Practical steps include:

Wash hands thoroughly with soap and warm water after handling reptiles or cleaning their enclosures.
Avoid cleaning reptile habitats, food bowls, or equipment in sinks used for human food preparation.
Supervise children when handling reptiles and teach them good hygiene habits early on.
Be cautious about keeping reptiles in households with infants, elderly individuals, or immunocompromised family members unless strict hygiene practices can be maintained.

The Bigger Picture: Why Education Matters

The story of sliders and the turtle ban is an important reminder of how Salmonella shaped reptile-keeping policies worldwide. But the real lesson is not to fear reptiles — it is to understand them.

Reptiles are not “dirty” or dangerous by nature. They are simply hosts to bacteria that can also affect humans. By recognising this and taking sensible precautions, owners can enjoy the companionship of their reptiles while protecting themselves and their families.

As vets, our responsibility is to support that balance. Testing may not always give the full picture, but open discussion, education, and individualised advice do. When owners feel informed and empowered, reptiles are more likely to receive the care they need, and risks to people are reduced.

Conclusion: Working Together for Healthy Pets and Families

Salmonella will always be part of the reptile world. The goal is not eradication, but management. With good hygiene, responsible ownership, and clear veterinary guidance, reptiles can continue to be safe, rewarding companions.

At ParasiteVet, we believe strongly in building trust with reptile owners. That means being honest about risks, offering clear information, and always remembering that we are on the same team. For some families, testing may provide reassurance or play a role in specific health concerns, while for others the focus will be purely on management. Both approaches can be valid when guided by a responsible vet-client conversation.

So if you own a reptile or are thinking about adding one to your family, take the time to learn, ask questions, and work closely with your vet. Together, we can protect the health of both your pets and your loved ones.

How it all started

Fri, 01 Feb 2019 02:09:49 GMT

Parasites of Pets

Welcome to our Blog!

Hi, and welcome!

I’d love to share a little about how this service began and why parasite testing has become such a big part of my life as a vet.

During vet school, I spent a lot of time, probably too much time, at a local exotic animal practice. The vet there, Juan, soon became a mentor to me. He always had the microscope switched on and connected to a big screen in the consult room. Whenever a sample came in, he would show clients exactly what was moving inside. I can still remember the first time I saw parasites wriggling across the screen from a reptile sample. It was fascinating and it sparked a passion that has never left me.

Later in my career, while working in a referral exotics hospital in Yorkshire, I realised there was a real problem. Parasites were sometimes overtreated when they weren’t causing harm, and other times their impact was missed entirely. It made me appreciate how important proper testing is. Getting clear answers means pets don’t suffer unnecessarily and treatments can be more accurate.

That passion carried on outside of work too. Alongside a busy practice job that often meant more than 40 hours a week, and while raising a young family, I set up my own small lab in a modified garage at home. It started with reptiles, carefully examining samples and building experience case by case. Looking back, those late evenings and weekends peering down the microscope were the first steps toward what has now become ParasiteVet.

Since then, I’ve seen just how many pets are affected. Dogs with “sensitive tummies” often turn out to have parasites like Giardia. Puppies with diarrhoea may actually have coccidia or roundworms. Bearded dragons often carry coccidia, and snakes can pick up lungworm. Some of these parasites can even pose a risk to people, especially children or those with weaker immune systems, which makes testing even more important.

What always strikes me is how many owners spend months or even years trying different diets, supplements or treatments, thinking their pet just has a delicate stomach, when in fact the cause is a parasite that could be picked up with a simple test.

So why isn’t testing routine in the UK? From my experience, it comes down to habit, cost and convenience. But things are changing. Across Europe and the US, expert groups now recommend parasite testing as part of regular pet healthcare. It helps avoid both over-treating and under-treating and gives vets and owners clear answers to work with.

That’s why I started ParasiteVet: to make testing easier, more accessible and more reliable. My mission is simple. Healthier pets, happier owners and safer families.

If you’d like to learn more, have a look at our website, follow us on social media or drop us a message. We’re here to help.

Here’s to the start of something I hope will make a real difference for pets and the people who love them.